Greetings for the New Year

Image of the last exhibition of FURMAH series. Coming soon will be published a post about it.

Islamic Star Patterns

The rise and spread of Islamic culture from the seventh century onward has provided us with one of history’s great artistic and decorative traditions. In a broad swath of Islamic rule, at one time extending across Europe, Africa, and Asia, we find artistic treasures of unrivaled beauty. Islamic art encompasses great achievements in calligraphy, stylized floral designs, architecture, and abstract geometric patterns. In this latter category, we can found, specifically, the Islamic star patterns such as adorn buildings throughout the Islamic world.

Islamic star patterns arose in the centuries after the birth of Islam, and spread quickly as Islamic rule grew outward from the Middle East to encompass western Europe, northern Africa, and southern Asia. This form of ornamentation peaked in the first half of the second millennium. The practice then tapered off as the borders of the Muslim world began to shrink. Today, historical artifacts can be found in countries from Spain to Uzbekistan, with important concentrations in Spain, Turkey, Iran, and Morocco.

There is no precise definition of an Islamic star pattern, but there are some general trends. They tend to be rigidly geometric in design, and feature star-shaped polygonal regions. They can be found carved in wood or stone, built from latticework, or assembled from baked terracotta tiles (a style known as Zillij or Zellige).

How were Islamic star patterns originally devised? Unfortunately, very little information about historical techniques survives to the present day. These techniques were a closely-guarded trade secret, passed from master to apprentice and ultimately lost in history.

The quest to design star patterns is therefore an intriguing puzzle. As a guide, we have an enigmatic set of examples from the past thousand years, but we don't know exactly how artisans working at the time designed their star patterns.

Although Islamic star patterns have been studied by artists and historians for centuries, it is only recently, with the aid of modern algebra and geometry, that a rigorous mathematical treatment of them can be given. Accordingly, many twentieth-century scholars have discussed various analysis and synthesis methods for star patterns.

One thing we do know is that star patterns are deeply mathematical in nature. The artisans who developed them were well versed in geometry; in their pursuit of mathematical knowledge, early Islamic scholars translated Euclid’s Elements into Arabic*.

The geometric skill of the artists and designers of the Medieval Islamic world is universally recognized. The Arab scholars who rescued Greek and Roman mathematical learning from oblivion made possible a blending of aesthetic and mathematical sensibilities that led to artistic achievements of marvelous skill and beauty. The average person who visits an Islamic monument will be dazzled by the beauty and intricacy of the patterns executed in mosaic tiles and carved plaster. But a person with a mathematical bent will also be delighted by the geometric sophistication of the decoration. For example, repeating patterns can be analyzed by types of symmetry**. Mathematicians have identified 17 distinct types of ‘plane symmetry groups’ also called ‘wallpaper groups’. Remarkably, examples of all seventeen symmetry groups can be found in the decoration of the Alhambra Palace in Granada, Spain, one of the jewels of Islamic art.


* The expansion and development of geometry through Islamic art and architecture can be related to the significant growth of science and technology in the Middle East, Iran, and Central Asia during the 8th and 9th centuries; such progress was prompted by translations of ancient texts from languages such as Greek and Sanskrit. By the 10th century, original Muslim contributions to science became significant. The earliest written document on geometry in the Islamic history of science is that authored by Khwarizmi (a Persian  mathematician, astronomer and geographer during the Abbasid Empire) in the early 9th century. Thus, history of Islamic geometrical ornaments is characterized by a gap of nearly three centuries — from the rise of Islam in the earl 7th century to the late 9th century, when the earliest example of geometrical decorations can be traced from the surviving buildings of the Muslim world.

For centuries, the compass and straight edge were the only tools used to construct polygons and required angles. Therefore, all Islamic Geometric Patterns originate from the harmonious subdivisions of circles and are based on templates of circle grids. Some researchers stated that the use of the circle is a way of expressing the Unity of Islam. According to this doctrine, the circle and its center is the point at which all Islamic patterns begin.

** The most striking characteristic of the geometric patterns in Islamic art is the prominent symmetric shapes, which are like stars and constellations. 6-, 8-, 10-, 12- pointed star shapes are the ones that occur mostly in ornaments. Another important characteristic is that the rectilinear forms are interlacing each other, and continuously following the lines.

Other examples of star tile patterns

(Click on the images to enlarge)

James C. Murphy: Drawing the Alhambra

James Cavanah Murphy spent the last 12 years of his life preparing notes and drawings for a publication on the Islamic al-Andalus architecture. The resulting book, The Arabian Antiquities of Spain*, was only partially published at his death in 1814. Thomas Hartwell Horne added text descriptions to Murphy’s measured drawings, and the whole was reprinted in 1815. Murphy’s careful documentation of the Great Mosque of Cordoba and the Alhambra in Granada are appreciative acknowledgements of the al-Andalus’ artistic achievements.

But who was James Cavanah Murphy?

James Cavanah Murphy (1760-1814)  was an Irish architect, architectural draughtsman and author and is said to have been born of obscure parentage in Blackrock, Co. Cork, and to have trained as a bricklayer. A talent for drawing brought him to the attention of Sir James Chatterton, who provided the means for him to go to Dublin. In Dublin he became a pupil at the Dublin Society's drawing schools in about 1775. What he did during the next decade is not known. He is said to have been a member of the building committee for the extension of the Parliament House in 1786. On 9 November 1786, shortly before the death of the ailing Thomas Ivory, he was appointed master of the Society's School of Drawing in Architecture in Ivory's place, but the decision was reversed the following month, and in February 1787 Henry Aaron Baker, who had been acting head of the School for some time, was appointed instead. 

Murphy benefited from the patronage and friendship of the Hon. William Burton Conyngham, who in 1788 sent him to Portugal to record the Dominican church and monastery of Batalha. Murphy arrived in Oporto in January 1789. His visit resulted in the publication of a folio volume of engraved plates, Plans, elevations, sections and views of the church of Batalha…To which is prefixed and introductory discourse on the principles of Gothic architecture (London, 1795), as well as Travels in Portugal (1795) and A General View of the State of Portugal (1798).  According to Croker, he also 'acquired a profound knowledge of the Portuguese and Spanish languages, and held for a short time a diplomatic situation of importance'. Murphy was back in Dublin by 1790 but was travelling in England in October of the same year.  Little is known about his activities during the period 1791 to 1802; a view by him of the lavabo at Mellifont Abbey, from the collection of William Burton Conyngham was published in Grose's Antiquities of Ireland (1791). He may possibly be the Murphy who was one of eight architects to submit designs in the competition for St George's church, Dublin, in 1800.

In 1802 Murphy returned to the Iberian Peninsula, this time to Cadiz, where he remained for seven years studying al-Andalus architecture. He returned to England in 1809 and settled in London. After his return he worked on an invention for the prevention of dry-rot in timber. He died, unmarried, on 12 September 1814 at Edward Street, Cavendish Square and was buried in Carrigrohan graveyard, Co. Cork. His ‘Arabian Antiquities of Spain’ and ‘A History of the Mohametan Empire in Spain’ were published posthumously in 1816. A drawing by him was exhibited at the First Munster Exhibition, Cork, in 1815 and several more at the Cork Society for Promoting the Fine Arts in 1816, 1819 and 1820.

Following his death many of Murphy's notes and drawings were acquired by Thomas Deane; a bound album of 'Sketches taken in Portugal in 1789 & 1790' from this source is now in the National Library of Ireland, which also has a design by him for a monument  to Henry Fielding in the graveyard of the Anglican church in Lisbon. A drawing by Murphy of the principal front of Slane Castle, showing the building as completed in 1787, is in the IAA, Murray Collection. Other drawings by Murphy are in the library of the University of Athens (in the process of being catalogued by the late Professor Michael McCarthy) and in the Society of Antiquaries (London).

(Click the images to enlarge)

Original titles of these plates:

01 Elevation of the ancient gate of Judgment

02 Porch of the gate of Judgment

03 Elevation of the Puerta del Vino (Wine-Gate)

04 Elevation of a small portico near the chapel

05 Elevation of the portico on the North side of the Patio del Agua (Court of the Water)

06 Elevation of an alcove in the Patio del Agua (Court of the Water)

07 A section of the baths in the Alhambra

08 Concert room of the baths

09 A section of the hall of the baths

10 Elevation of the portico of the Generalife

11 Front view of the portico of the Generalife

* The scant biographical notices of James Cavanah Murphy show that he went to Spain in 1802 and was engaged in unspecified diplomatic missions for the court of Portugal to the Spanish court during the next seven years. His principal occupation, however, was in architectural draughtsmanship and the fame of his folio on Batalha led the Governor of the Alhambra to give him carte blanche to draw every detail of that world-famous monument as the Governor was 'desirous that the knowledge of its splendid architectural remains should be accurately transmitted to posterity.'  He was indulged similarly by the Governor of Cordoba and these two sites are the principal subject of The Arabian Antiquities of Spain. He returned to London in 1809 to prepare it for publication, which finally happened in 1815. James Cavanah Murphy - did not live to see its publication. He died on 12 September 1814, 'a victim of his labours', the accounts tell us.

About AL HAMRA’s artworks

For modern historians of art, an artistic work is only 'art' insofar as it bears the stamp of an individual personality, while for the traditional spirit of Islam beauty is essentially the expression of a universal truth.

Islamic art can be defined as being an art with no geographical boundaries. It is, however, considered to be a theological art craft. The art style is commonly referred to as Islamic and it has been produced in many different geographical regions with diverse cultures, unified through the religion of Islam.

In the book ‘Art of Islam: Language and Meaning’, the Swiss philosopher and connoisseur of Islamic art and culture, Titus Burckhardt or Sidi Ibrahim  after his Islamic name (1908-1984) states that the three components of Arabic architecture are: geometry (the balanced distribution of shapes, orderly and at times implausible spaces), rhythm (progression of those same shapes along certain lines of perspective, moving through space) and light (which makes the shapes and the changing perspectives visible).

These are the three components which, ‘AL HAMRA contemporary art projects’ has be used to build up its huge and excellent body of work (geometry, rhythm and light - or colour). A work which follows the two patterns of art found in the al-Andalus palaces of Alhambra: It is aniconic (it contains no figurative representation) and it is, in Islamic terms, al-tawhid (it presents unity in multiplicity).

In other words, the artworks of ‘AL HAMRA contemporary art projects’ could be described as modern geometric abstraction, but it’s more than that, the large-scale artworks are at once simple and complex, primitive and modern and presents the rich creativity of Islamic Arts, specially thanks to a careful study of Islamic al-Andalus and al-Maghrib heritage culture, and the recognition to its art language as the road between the material world (pictoric) and the spiritual worlds (his visual thought), beyond abstract expressionism and minimalist art.

The culture’s ornate carvings, tile patterns and meaningful colours were an important part of AL HAMRA’s painting creative process and as a result of the intricate beauties that make up the aesthetics of Islamic motifs. And in turn, developing a deep respect for the principles of these traditional arts.

‘AL HAMRA contemporary art projects’ focuses predominantly on depicting the hidden meanings in Islamic art through the use of symbolism in patterns and colours and combines traditional techniques and concepts to create artworks with a slight modern feel to them.

The countries where masterpieces of Islamic art and architecture are present are usually the most inspirational times for ‘AL HAMRA contemporary art projects’, specially the empires of the past in southern Spain and Northern Africa, from Umayyad Caliphate of Cordoba to Nasrid Emirate of Granada or also Marinid Sultanate of Maghreb, which have very inspiring heritage sites for an artistic new creation.

From the Western point of view, the criterion of an artistic culture lies in its capacity to represent nature and even more in its capacity to portray man. From the Islamic point of view, on the contrary, the main scope of art is not the imitation or description of nature.

Islamic art is predominately made up of patterns due to the absence of figurative images and icons to prevent the art being a form of worship. This has given birth to a very rich and diverse array of patterns that range from floral motifs to more structured geometric compositions. The main thing about them is, even though they are all so diverse, they still share a common law. The idea of symmetry, harmony and structure is always at its core. No pattern is ever composed without obeying the laws of harmony. This is one of the main principles of Islamic art as a whole. The reason for this is the philosophy of trying to embody and convey the harmony and structure of everything on this earth through pattern.

Geometry plays a crucial role in Islamic art; it can be seen as the foundation or guideline. Every element of Islamic art is entwined with geometric proportions, and is used to tell a story.

Geometry can be used as a very sophisticated and elegant visual language for those who understand it.

The visual language of Islamic design employs a variety of intricate geometric patterns, floral elements and ornate calligraphy, all of which are used to decorate manuscripts, textiles, furniture, buildings, etc. Looking at calligraphy, each letter is composed using very strict geometric measurements that must be followed. In miniature painting and manuscript illumination, the layout of the page is generally composed using geometric principles.

In the Alhambra, geometric pattern is perfectly integrated with biomorphic design (arabesque) and calligraphy.  These are the three distinct, but complementary, disciplines that comprise Islamic art. They form a three-fold hierarchy in which geometry is seen as foundational. This is often signified by its use on the floors, ceilings or lower parts of walls, as you can see in Alhambra’s Nasrid decorations.

The ornamental characteristic of these wall decorations are based mainly in a tile patterns created by a craft technique knew well as ‘zillij’ or ‘azzulech’ tessellations (according to Moroccan or Andalusian cultural influence respectively) and developed by the Muslim artisans.

In this sense, the colourist painting of AL HAMRA combines modern geometric abstraction with the tradition of Islamic art, transferring to canvas these tile-pattern motifs using mainly the true concepts of ‘hard-edge’ legacy art style.

At the same time, the visually compelling quality of hard-edge painting reflects its relationship to architecture, and for this reason in ‘AL HAMRA contemporary art projects’ we are architects and painters!

“… mosaics with their fragmented iridiscent surfaces, which are partly transparent, bestow something incorporeal and uncertain on the walls they cover; ceramic tiles on the other hand, so typical of Islamic art during the following centuries, define the surfaces at the same time as making them luminous.”

Titus Burckhardt / the Birth of Islamic Art

(To see more about AL HAMRA’s artworks, click on the series catalogue links)

Owen Jones: The Grammar of Ornament

Owen Jones (1809-1874) was a London-born architect and designer of Welsh descent, and one of the most influential design theorists of his time, the nineteenth century. He helped pioneer modern color theory, and his theories on flat patterning and ornament still resonate with contemporary designers today, two hundred years after his birth.

He rose to prominence with his studies of Islamic decoration at the Alhambra, and the associated publication of his drawings, which pioneered new standards in chromolithography. He looked towards the Islamic world for much of this inspiration, using his carefully observed studies of Islamic decoration at the Alhambra to develop bold new theories on flat patterning, geometry and abstraction in ornament. These design propositions also formed the basis for his seminal publication 'The Grammar of Ornament' (1856) the global and historical design sourcebook for which Jones is perhaps best known today, that is still in print more than 150 years later.

Jones embarked on a Grand Tour to the continent in 1832, having completed studies at the Royal Academy Schools and an apprenticeship with the architect Lewis Vuillamy (1791-1871). He travelled first to Italy and then to Greece where he met the young French architect Jules Goury (1803-1834), who was assisting Gottfried Semper (1803-1879) with his radical studies of the polychromy of Ancient Greek buildings. Jones and Goury travelled together to Egypt to study the Islamic architecture of Cairo and the ancient sites, and continued on to Constantinople before finally arriving at Granada in southern Spain where they embarked on their studies of the Islamic decoration at the Alhambra.

Jones’s studies in Granada were pivotal in the development of his theories on flat pattern, geometry and polychromy. His travelling companion, Jules Goury, died during their six-month stay at the Alhambra, at the age of 31, and Jones returned to London determined to publish the results of their studies. The standard of colour printing at that time was not sophisticated enough to do justice to the intricate decoration of the Alhambra, therefore Jones undertook the printing work himself. Collaborating with chemists and printers, Jones took it upon himself to research the new process of chromolithography. He issued this labour of love 'Plans, Elevations, Sections and Details of the Alhambra' in twelve parts over a period of almost ten years, from 1836 to 1845. It was the world’s first ever published work of any significance to employ chromolithography, and was to be a key milestone in the development of Owen Jones’s reputation as a design theorist.

Jones was able to disseminate his theories on pattern and ornament through his work for several of the key manufacturers of the period, thus facilitating public consumption of his decorative visions in a number of diverse contexts. During the 1840s, having been inspired by the tilework at the Alhambra, Jones became known for his designs for mosaics and tessellated pavements, working for firms such as Maw & Co., Blashfield and Minton. He designed wallpapers for several firms from the 1840s until the 1870s including Townsend and Parker, Trumble & Sons and Jeffrey & Co. Jones was also prolific in the field of textiles - designing silks for Warner, Sillett & Ramm and carpets for Brinton and James Templeton & Co.

Definitely Jones’s studies of the Alhambra were highly significant in the development of both his interest in ornament and his theories of flat pattern, geometry and polychromy. Jones and Goury observed that the harmony of Islamic decoration was achieved through the use of primary colours, with secondary and tertiary colours used in the background. Jones was appointed as one of the Superintendents of Works for the Great Exhibition of 1851, a showcase of manufactures and industry from around the world, which would provide inspiration to designers and craftsmen in the new industrial culture of Victorian Britain. Jones was responsible for the interior decoration of Joseph Paxton’s Crystal Palace, and also the arrangement of the exhibits inside. This work enabled Jones to put his colour theories into practical use, and also brought Jones to the attention of the wider public. He developed a controversial colour scheme for the interior based on the primary colours of red, yellow and blue for the interior ironwork, based on his studies of primary colour polychromy in the architecture of Ancient Greece, Ancient Egypt and the Alhambra.

Plate from 'The Grammar of Ornament' book showing tile patterns from the walls of the Alhambra.

The ZILLIJ series in old courtyards of Morocco

In the old town of Tetouan, the ‘madinah’, there are beautiful and historical buildings with typical or traditional courtyards. Tetouan (formely know as ‘Tittawin’ from the bereber language) was of particular importance in the Islamic period, from the 8th century onwards, since it served as the main point of contact between Morocco and Andalusia. After the Spanish Reconquest of al-Andalus (completed by the fall of Granada in 1492), the town was rebuilt by Nasrid Andalusian refugees who had been expelled by the Catholic Monarchs. This is well illustrated by its art and architecture, which reveal clear Andalusian inheritance. It is one of the smallest of the Moroccan medinas but indisputably the most complete and the majority of its buildings have remained untouched by subsequent outside influences.

The streets are fairly wide and straight, and many of the houses belonging to aristocratic families, descendants of those Muslim people expelled from al-Andalus, possess marble fountains and have groves planted with orange trees. Within the houses the ceilings are often exquisitely carved and painted in hispano-moresque designs, such as are found in the Alhambra of Granada, and the tile-work for which Tetuan is known may be seen on floors, pillars and ‘dados’  (the lower part of the walls).

The Medina of Tetouan is surrounded by a historic wall of approximately 5 km in length and accessed by means of seven gates and possesses an original urban fabric characterised by the hierarchy of streets and division of residential, commercial and artisan areas following a clearly defined plan. In general, the built heritage such as the funduqs, mosques, zawayas,  fountains, hammams, ovens, and historic silos, have retained their authenticity, be it in their shape, their construction materials or their decoration or even for some, their function. The majority of houses have remained intact.

The Medina of Tetouan bears witness to the considerable influences of Andalusian civilization towards the end of the medieval period of Muslim Occident. This influence is illustrated in developments in architecture, monumental arts and town-planning, practically intact in its initial design. In conclusion, the Medina of Tetouan is an exceptionally well-preserved and complete example of this type of historic town, displaying all the features of high Andalusian culture.

In accordance with all these comments and because Tetouan and Granada (with the Alhambra, Generalife gardens and Albayzin neighbourhood) are historical Andalusian twin cities and nowadays two Unesco World Heritage Sites, AL HAMRA contemporary art projects chose the Tetouan Medina courtyards as architectural backgrounds to exhibit several large paintings of the Zillij series catalogue.

(For more information about these paintings, see the post ‘New Exhibition: The ZILLIJ art collection’ or open in a new window the Zillij series catalogue).

Click on the image to enlarge it